Genetics has fundamentally reshaped our understanding of race, challenging long-held assumptions about its biological basis. Early in the 20th century, race was widely accepted as a biological reality, used to explain differences in appearance and abilities among human groups. However, modern genetic research has shown that the physical traits commonly associated with race—such as skin color, hair texture, and facial features—are shaped by evolutionary adaptation to different environments, not by distinct genetic boundaries between so-called races. These traits reflect adaptation to factors like sunlight and climate, and do not correspond to discrete biological categories.

Pioneering studies, such as those by geneticist Richard Lewontin in 1972, revealed that the vast majority of human genetic variation—about 85%—exists within populations rather than between them. Only a small fraction of genetic differences can be attributed to traditional racial groupings. This means that two people from the same “race” can be more genetically different from each other than from someone of a different “race.” The Human Genome Project confirmed these findings, demonstrating that all humans are more than 99.9% genetically identical, regardless of ancestry or geographic origin.

Despite these scientific insights, the concept of race persists as a powerful social reality. Socially defined racial groups do differ in health, wealth, and other outcomes, but these disparities are not rooted in genetics. Instead, they result from systemic differences in lived experiences and institutional racism. The persistence of race as a social category continues to shape societies, influencing everything from medical practice to economic opportunity.

Contemporary genetic research recognizes that while human populations have adapted to local environments, the boundaries between groups are fluid and do not align with traditional racial categories. Genetic variation is better explained by geographic distance and evolutionary history than by race. As a result, scientists now advocate studying human genetic diversity without relying on the outdated and misleading framework of race.